A Few Words on Grades

The grade of a climb is a subjective indication its severity, at least in the US. In the UK, the word grade is also used to indicate the technical difficulty of the climb, what is called rating in the US. Some grading systems measure the average length of a climb, others consider the general safety of the climb, etc. Below are some of the more popular grading systems. These generally cover both free and aid climbing, but not ice climbing. 

The North American Grading System

In North America, grades denote the normal amount of time required to complete a route. This time is based on a team of average climbers using normal techniques. 
 
Class I - Requires 1-2 hours
Class II - Requires half a day
Class III - Requires most of a day
Class IV - Requires a very long day
Class V - Requires an overnight stay on the route
Class VI - Requires a few days
Class VII - Expedition
The Alpine Grading System
Routes in the Western Alps are generally given an overall grade - in addition to a pitch-by-pitch rating. The overall grade says something about the general difficulty of the climb. It takes into account the technical difficulty, the quality of the belays, the nature of the rock, the exposure of the climb, the objective dangers, etc. The grading system uses letters (derived from the french words - in parenthesis) and sometimes uses "+" and "-" to indicate smaller differences. 
 
F - Easy. (Facile)
PD - Moderately difficult. (Peu Difficile)
AD - Fairly difficult. (Assez Difficile)
D - Difficult. (Difficile)
TD - Very difficult. (Très Difficile)
ED - Extremely difficult. (Extrêmement Difficile)

ABO - Horrible. (Abominable)

The German Grading System

The German grading system considers the seriousness or Ernsthaftigkeitsgrad of a climb. This grading scale considers all aspects of the climb which have nothing to do with the technical difficulty: average runout distance, quality of the protection placements, objective dangers, quality of the rock, etc. The scale goes from E0 to E5. E0 is a normal route, with solid fixed pro and ample opportunities for placing pro. E5, at the other end of the scale, stands for a largely unprotected and unprotectable route with manky pitons and crummy rock. On an E5 climb, falling is generally a lethal idea. In most topos, routes with an Ernsthaftigkeitsgrad above E0 are marked as such. 

A Few Words on Ratings and Grades - Aid Climbing

The good news about aid climbing rating scales is that the whole world uses a single scale that goes from A1 to A5. The bad news is that there are many interpretations of that scale. It will all depend on where and when that first ascent was made. 

For most purposes, the following - general - aid rating scale will do: 
• A1: All placements are rock solid and easy. 
• A2: Placements are still bomber, but the placements are awkward and a few difficult may be difficult. 
• A3: Many placements are difficult, but there is the occasional bomber piece. 
• A4: There are several placements in a row that will hold nothing more than body weight. 

• A5: 20 meters (60 ft) or more of body placements in a row.

 

In Europe, where most aid climbs were made long ago, this scale may be adjusted downward. Put simply, A3 placements are difficult, but will hold a short fall. A4 will involve some body weight placements, but not necessarily many in a row. And A5 is just unheard of. In Europe, A0 is used to indicate that fixed (and solid) pro is in place. 

In the USA, modern equipment and the unrelentless drive to climb ever bigger and more difficult Big Walls, has pushed aid climbing to limits that were unimaginable a few decades ago. This has also changed the interpretation of the rating scales. This is how John Long and John Middendorf interpret the modern aid climbing ratings it in their 'Big Wall' book: 

• A0: Hanging from gear, stepping on pitons, pulling up on nuts, etc. Everything that doesn't require aiders and can't be honestly called 'free climbing'. Also known as "french free". 
• A1: Easy aid. Placements are easy and bomber. Each piece should hold a fall. 
• A2: Moderate aid. Solid but often awkward and strenuous placements. Maybe a difficult placement or two above good pro. Falls pose no danger. 
• A2+: Moderate aid, but with more tenuous placements above good pro. There is a potential for serious falls, but these will generally be otherwise uneventfull. 
• A3: Hard aid. Requires many tenuous placements in a row and pieces need to be tested before weighting them. There should be solid placements within the pitch, but they are rather few and far between. During a fall, up to eight pieces of pro may rip out, but there generally is little serious danger. Takes several hours to complete a pitch. 
• A3+: A3, but with a dangerous fall potential. 
• A4: Serious aid. Most placements hold little less than body weight and falls are serious affairs. Being 10 to 15 meters (30 to 50 ft) above the last solid piece is not uncommon. 
• A4+: Very serious aid. Placements are often very marginal and pitches require many hours to complete. 
• A5: Extreme aid. No piece in the whole pitch can be trusted to hold a fall. No bolts or rivets in A5 pitches. 
• A6: A5 with poor belays that won't hold a fall. The leader pops and the whole team is airborne. No one sane has ever done this, and no one insane who tried came back to tell us about it. 

Special Material for Outdoor Education Programs

These sections are not included in the retail version of the book but are provided here on-line for reference for outdoor programs: 

• Leader Training 

• Leadership & Group Dynamics

• Students with Special Needs 

• Observant Jewish Students
• Kosher 
• Vegetarian
• Food Allergies
• Eating Disorders 

The Backpacker's Field Manual Table of Contents

Chapter 1 - Trip Planning

• Basic Trip Planning

o Group Size and Ability 
o Activities 
o Location & weather 
o Flexibility 
o Equipment 
o Food 
o Teaching plan 
• Trip preparation checklist 
o Pre-trip 
o During the trip 
o On return 

• Determining physical condition 
o Trip Difficulty Rating 
o Planning a Route 

Chapter 2 - Equipment
• Equipment Assessment 
o Personal Equipment 
o Group Equipment 
o The Twelve Essentials 

• Clothing 
o Regulating Your Body Temperature 
o The Layering Principal 
o Clothing Layers 
o Clothing Techniques 

• Boots 
o Fitting 
o Breaking In 
o Boot Care 

• The Backpack 
o External Frame Packs 
o Internal Frame Packs 
o Sizing a Pack 
o Loading a Pack 
o Putting on a Heavy Pack 

• Sleeping Equipment 
o Sleeping Bags 
 Temperature Ratings 
 Sleeping Bag Styles 
 Sleeping Bag Fit 
 Insulation types 
 Sleeping Bag Care 
o Sleeping Pads 

• Shelter 
o General Shelter Tips 
o Tarps 
o Tents 

• Cooking Equipment 
o General Cooking Equipment 
o Outdoor Baking Equipment 
o Backpacking Stoves 
 Stove Types 
 How Liquid Fuel Stoves Work 
 Stove Safety Guidelines 
 Liquid Fuel Guidelines 
 The Coleman Peak 1 Stove 
 The MSR Whisperlite Stove 

Chapter 3 - Food & Nutrition

• Energy and Nutritional Requirements 
o Caloric Requirements 
o Sources for Calories 
o Food Guide Pyramid 
 Servings 
 Grain Products Group 
 Vegetable Group 
 Fruit Group 
 Milk Group 
 Meat and Beans Group 
 Sweets Group 
 Complete Protein Combinations 

• Basic Fluid Recommendations 

• Menu Planning 
o How long are you going to be out? 
o Ease of Preparation 
o Weight 
o Packaging/Re-packaging 
o Spoilage 
o Cost 

• Special Dietary Considerations 
o Vegetarianism 
o Food Allergies 
o Kosher Meal Planning 

• Cooking Directions 

• General Cooking Guidelines, Ingredients, and Recipes 
o Sample Menu Items 
 Breakfast 
 Trail Food & Lunch 
 Dinner 

• Outdoor Baking 

• Food Equivalents 

• Measurement Equivalents 

Chapter 4 - Hygiene & Water Purification
• Keeping Yourself Clean 
o The Hand Washing Station 
o Personal Bathing 
• Washing Clothes 

• Washing Dishes, Pots, Utensils 
o Cleaning Equipment 
o Pot Cleaning System 

• Women's Hygiene Issues 
o Tampons vs. Pads 
o Disposing of Tampons or Pads 

• Water Purification 
o Biological Contaminated vs. Toxic Water 
o Boiling 
o Chemical Purification 
 Iodine Treatment 
 Chlorine Treatment 
o Filtration 
 PUR Hiker and PUR Voyageur Water Filter 
 MSR Waterworks II and Miniworks Water Filter

 

Chapter 5 - Leave No Trace Camping

• General Principles 

• Guidelines for Temperate Forests 

• Backcountry Travel 
o General Travel Guidelines 
o Travel Guidelines for Pristine or Highly Fragile Areas 

• Campsite Selection 
o High Impact Campsites 
o Pristine Campsites 
o General Campsite Guidelines 

• Dealing with Human Waste 
o Urine 
o Feces 
o Toilet Paper 
o Natural TP Materials 
o Locations 
o How to dig a Cathole or Latrine 
o Packing Out Feces 
o Women and Menstruation 

• Other Types of Waste 
o Medical Waste 
o Garbage 
o Waste Water 

• Campfires 
o When Not to Have a Fire 
o When to Have a Fire 
o General Guidelines for Fire Building 
o Fires in Highly Impacted Areas 
o Fires in Pristine Areas 
o The Mound Fire 
o Fire Pans 
o Firewood Selection 
o Cleaning Up After a Fire 

• At the End of the Trip 

Chapter 6 - Wilderness Travel

• Maps & Map Reading 
o Latitude and Longitude 
o Scale 
o Map Symbols and Colors 
o Map Legend 
o Contour Lines 
o Measuring Distances 

• Using a Compass 
o What is North? 
o Declination 
o Which North to Use 

• Using Map and Compass 
o What's your Map Declination? 
o Bearings 
o Map Bearings & Magnetic Bearings 
o West Declination 
o East Declination 
o Adjusting Your Compass for the Local Declination 

• Using Map and Compass Together 

• Wilderness Navigation 
o Check Your Position Regularly 
o Orienting the Map 
o Identify Terrain Features 

• Real Life Scenarios 
o Scenario 1 - Lost in the Fog 
o Scenario 2 - Heading to the Summit 
o Techniques for Walking a Bearing 
o Scenario 3 - Retracing Your Steps to Camp 
o Scenario 4 - There's a Swamp in your Way 
o Scenario 5 - Now You are Really Lost 

• Other Tools 
o Altimeters 
o Watches 
o Global Positioning Systems (GPS) 

• Backcountry Travel 
o Energy Conservation 
o Splitting a Large Group into Smaller Groups 
o Pace 
o Rest Breaks 

• Hiking Techniques 

• Stretches for Hiking 

• Off Trail Hiking 
o General Backcountry Conditions 
o Hiking through Thick Forest of Brush 
o Hiking on Rocky Slopes and Trails 
o Hiking on Snow and Ice 
o River Crossings 

• Setting Up Camp 
o Using a Tent 
o Tarp Set Up 

• Traveling in Bear Country 
o Bear Encounters 
o How to Bearproof Your Camp 

• Knots 
o Two Half Hitches 
o Bowline 
o Tautline Hitch 
o Square Knot 
o Sheet Bend 
o Truckers Hitch 

Chapter 7 - Weather and Nature

• Wind

o Mountain Winds 
o Coastal Winds 
o Changes in Wind Direction 
o Beaufort Wind Scale 

• Clouds

o Identifying Cloud Types 

• Barometric Pressure 

• Fronts 
o Warm Fronts 
o Cold Fronts 
o Occluded Fronts 

• Thunderstorms 
o The Physics of Lightning 
o Lightning Dangers 

• Predicting the Weather 
o Temperature Ranges 

• Natural Signs of Time and Direction 

• Common Trees 
o Leaf Attachment 
o Leaf Type 
o Tree Identification Key 
o Broadleaf Trees 
o Conifers 

• Common Plants 
o Wild Edibles 
o Plants to Avoid 

• Spotting Wildlife 
o Tips for Spotting Wildlife 
o Animal Signs 
o Hazards of Animal Observation 

Chapter 8 - Safety & Emergency Procedures
• Dealing with Emergencies - Who's in charge? 

• How Accidents Happen 
o Environmental Hazards 
o Human Factor Hazards 
o Sample Accident Scenario 
o Teaching the Dynamics of Accidents Model 
o Environmental Briefing 
o Reducing the Accident Potential 
o Accident Analysis - Closing the Circle 
o General Safety Guidelines 
o Preventive Measures to Minimize Accident Potentials 

• Sending for Help 

• Evacuation Procedures 
o Possible Evacuation Scenarios 
o Choosing to Evacuate 

• What to do if Someone Gets Lost 
o If the Group Gets Lost 
o If an Individual in the Group Gets Lost 
o If You are Hiking Solo and Get Lost 
o Signaling for Help 
o Locating Lost Persons 

• Extreme Weather Conditions 
o Lightning 

• Forest Fires 
o The Dynamics of Forest Fires 
o Fire Safety Plan 

• Wilderness Survival 
o The Five Elements of Survival 
o Shelter 
o Water 

• Accident Scenario Analysis 

Chapter 9 - First Aid and Emergency Care
• Backcountry First Aid 
• The Wilderness Context 
• Good Samaritan Laws 

• Patient Assessment 
o Patient Exam 
o Assess the Scene 
o Primary Assessment 
o Secondary Assessment 
 Vital Signs 
 Patient History 
 Assessing the Patient's Pain 

• Treatment Plan 

• General First Aid Principles 
o Shock 
o Swelling 
o Ischemia 
o Shell/Core Response 
o Bleeding 
o Wound Care 
o Universal Precautions for Working with Blood and Body Fluids 
o Basic Life Support 

• Moving a Patient 
o The In-line Drag 
o The Log Roll 

• Major Body Systems 
o Respiratory System 
o Circulatory System 
o Nervous System 
o The Musculoskeletal System 
 Sprains, Strains and Fractures 
 Tendonitis 
 Sprains 
 General Fracture Treatment 
 Fracture Sites & Treatment 
 Splinting 
 SAM Splint Guidelines 
 Sling & Swathe 
 Lower Leg Splint 
 Fractures at Joints 
 Angulated Fractures 
 Open Fractures 
 Femur Fractures & Traction Splint 
 Dislocations 
 Shoulder Dislocation 
 Kneecap Dislocation 
 Digit Dislocation 

o Spinal Injuries 
 Cervical Spine Injuries 

o Injuries to the Central Nervous System 
 Fainting 
 Head Injuries 
 Concussion 
 Skull Fractures 
 Seizures 

o Chest Injuries 
 Broken Ribs 
 Flail Chest 
 Pneumothorax 
 Sucking Chest Wound 
 Impaled Object in the Chest 

• Soft Tissue Injuries 
o Lacerations 
o Blisters 

• Thermal Burns 
o First-Degree Burns 
o Second-Degree Burns 
o Third-Degree Burns 

• Impaled Objects 
o Minor Impaled Objects 

• Rashes 
o Poison Ivy, Poison Oak, Poison Sumac 
o Friction Rashes 

• Eye Injuries 
o Thermal Burns 
o Chemical Burns 
o Foreign Objects 
o Impaled Objects 
o Contact Lens Problems 
o Conjunctivitis 
o Snowblindness 

• Nosebleeds 

• Dental Problems 
o Toothaches 
o Broken Tooth 
o Fractured Tooth 
o Knocked out Tooth 
o Lost Filling 
o Infection 

• Environmental Injuries and Illnesses 
o Fluid Balance 
o Thermoregulation 
o Cold Challenge 
 Wind Chill Index 
o Heat Challenge 
 The Heat Index 
o Heat Illnesses 
 Heat Cramps 
 Heat Syncope 
 Heat Exhaustion 
 Heat Strokes 
o Hypothermia 
o Immersion Hypothermia 
o Drowning & Near Drowning 
o Cold Weather Injuries 
 Frostbite 
 First-Degree Frostbite 
 Second-Degree Frostbite 
 Third-Degree Frostbite 
o Immersion Foot or Trenchfoot 

• Toxins 
o General Treatment for Toxins and Poisons 
o Acids and Bases 
o Petroleum Products 
o Medicines or Plants 
o Iodine Crystals 
o Carbon Monoxide 
o White Gas 

• Animal and Insect Bites and Stings 

• Rabies 

• Snake Bites 
o Pit Vipers 
o Coral Snakes 

• Insect Bites 
o Black Widow Spider 
o Brown Recluse Spider 
o Scorpions 
o Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases 
o Bee Stings 

• Anaphylaxis 

• General Medical issues 
o Abdominal Injuries and Gastrointestinal Problems 
 Conditions with Abdominal Pain Requiring Evacuation 
 Appendicitis 
 Constipation 
 Diarrhea or Vomiting 
o Gastrointestinal Infections 
 Giardia 
 Cryptosporidium and Cyclospora 
o Other Infectious Diseases 
 Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS) 
o Genitourinary Tract and Women's Health Issues 
 Urinary Tract Disorders 
 Vaginitis 
o Diabetes 
 Hypoglycemia (Low Blood Sugar) 
 Hyperglycemia (High Blood Sugar) 
o Altitude Illnesses 
 Acclimatization 
 Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS) 
 High Altitude Pulmonary Edema (HAPE) 
 High Altitude Cerebral Edema (HACE) 

• Medications Profiles 
• Organizations Providing Training in Wilderness First Aid